Gadolinium halide scintillators

ABSTRACT

The present invention concerns scintillator compositions comprising gadolinium halide and a dopant. The gadolinium halide and dopant material (e.g., GdI 3 :Ce) has surprisingly good characteristics including high light output, high gamma-ray stopping efficiency, fast response, low cost, good proportionality, and minimal afterglow, thereby making the material useful for various applications including, for example, gamma-ray spectroscopy, medical imaging, nuclear and high energy physics research, diffraction, non-destructive testing, nuclear treaty verification and safeguards, and geological exploration. The timing resolution of the scintillators of the present invention also provides compositions suitable for use in imaging applications, such as positron emission tomography (e.g., time-of-flight PET) and CT imaging.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The present invention claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S. Application No. 60/808,591, filed May 26, 2006, the entire content of which is incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a scintillator. More specifically, the present invention relates to a gadolinium halide scintillator for use, for example, in radiation detection, including gamma-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray and neutron detection.

Scintillation spectrometers are widely used in detection and spectroscopy of energetic photons (e.g., X-rays and γ-rays). Such detectors are commonly used, for example, in nuclear and particle physics research, medical imaging, diffraction, non destructive testing, nuclear treaty verification and safeguards, nuclear non-proliferation monitoring, and geological exploration (Knoll Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, (1999), Kleinknecht, Detectors for Particle Radiation, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. (1998)).

Important requirements for the scintillation crystals used in these applications include high light output, transparency to the light it produces, high stopping efficiency, fast response, good proportionality, low cost and availability in large volume. These requirements cannot be met by any of the commercially available scintillators. While general classes of chemical compositions may be identified as potentially having some attractive scintillation characteristic(s), specific compositions/formulations having both scintillation characteristics and physical properties necessary for actual use in scintillation spectrometers and various practical applications have proven difficult to predict. Specific scintillation properties are not necessarily predictable from chemical composition alone, and preparing effective scintillators from even candidate materials often proves difficult. For example, while the composition of sodium chloride had been known for many years, the invention by Hofstadter of a high light-yield and conversion efficiency scintillator from sodium iodide doped with thallium launched the era of modern radiation spectrometry. More than half a century later, thallium doped sodium iodide, in fact, still remains one of the most widely used scintillator materials. Since the invention of NaI(Tl) scintillators in the 1940's, for half a century radiation detection applications have depended to a significant extent on this material. The fields of nuclear medicine, radiation monitoring and spectroscopy have grown up supported by NaI(Tl). Although far from ideal, NaI(Tl) was relatively easy to produce for a reasonable cost and in large volume. With the advent of X-ray CT in the 1970's, a major commercial field emerged as did a need for different scintillators, as NaI(Tl) was not able to meet the requirements of CT imaging. Later, the commercialization of PET imaging provided the impetus for the development of yet another class of detector materials with properties suitable for PET. As the methodology of scintillator development evolved, new materials have been added, and yet, specific applications are still hampered by the lack of scintillators suitable for particular applications.

As a result, there is continued interest in the search for new scintillators and formulations with both the enhanced performance and the physical characteristics needed for use in various applications (Derenzo, in, Heavy Scintillators for Scientific and Industrial Applications, Derenzo and Moses, Gif-sur-Yvette, France (1993), pp. 125-135; van Eijk, Lecoq, Proc. Int. Conf. Inorganic Scintill. Appl., pps. 3-12, Shanghai, China, (1997); Moses, Nucl. Inst. Meth. A-487:123-128 (2002)). Today, the development of new scintillators continues to be as much an art as a science, since the composition of a given material does not necessarily determine its properties as a scintillator, which are strongly influenced by the history (e.g., fabrication process) of the material as it is formed. While it is may be possible to reject a potential scintillator for a specific application based solely on composition, it is not possible to predict whether a material with promising composition will produce a scintillator with the desired properties.

One of the uses of radiation monitoring devices is preventing the spread of weapons of mass destruction such as nuclear weapons. The spread of nuclear weapons is an increasing threat throughout the world and preventing further proliferation has reached a state of heightened urgency in recent years, especially since the events on Sep. 11, 2001 and its aftermath. One way to passively determine the presence of nuclear weapons is to detect and identify the characteristic signatures of special nuclear materials (SNMs) such as highly enriched uranium and weapons grade plutonium. Characteristic X-rays and gamma-rays are signatures of these materials (Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials, eds. Reilly et al., U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington D.C., pp. 11-18, (1991)). The general approach to passive gamma-ray assay is to acquire raw spectra, correct the spectra for rate-related electronic losses and source attenuation and compute the total corrected count rate which is proportional to the mass of the isotope being assayed. The proportionality constant includes the effects of gamma-ray emission rate, solid angle, and detector efficiency.

Monitoring for both highly enriched uranium and weapons grade plutonium involves analysis of X-ray and gamma-ray spectra with multiple energies of interest. One important consideration in SNM monitoring is the determination of uranium enrichment since highly enriched uranium can be used for development of nuclear weapons. The naturally occurring isotopic abundance of uranium is: ²³⁸U (99.27%), ²³⁵U (0.720%) and ²³⁴U (0.006%). When the fraction of the fissile ²³⁵U is higher than that in naturally occurring uranium, the uranium is said to be enriched. The relative intensity of 185.7 keV gamma-rays (from ²³⁵U) compared to the 94-98 keV X-rays for uranium in an unattenuated spectrum can be used to determine uranium enrichment (Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials, eds. Reilly et al., U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington D.C., pp. 11-18, (1991)). As the uranium enrichment level increases, the relative intensity of the 185.7 keV gamma-ray peak increases in comparison to the 94-98 keV X-ray peak. Another consideration in SNM monitoring is to distinguish “weapons-grade” plutonium (with 93% ²³⁹Pu) from “reactor-grade” plutonium <60% ²³⁹Pu). The “reactor-grade” plutonium includes other isotopes such as ²⁴⁰Pu, ²⁴¹Pu, ²⁴²Pu, and ²³⁸Pu. Comparison of gamma-ray signatures of ²³⁹Pu (such as 129.3 keV and 413.7 keV photons) with those for other plutonium isotopes allows determination of the grade of plutonium. In addition to the characteristic X- and gamma-rays of highly enriched uranium and weapons grade plutonium, there is considerable interest in the measurement of irradiated fuel from nuclear reactors because of the plutonium produced during reactor operation. Due to very intense gamma-rays emitted by fission products of the irradiated fuel, gamma-rays from spontaneous decay of plutonium and uranium (²³⁵U, ²³⁹Pu and ²⁴¹Pu) are generally not used for measurement of irradiated fuel. The most commonly measured fission product gamma-ray is the 662 keV line from ¹³⁷Cs (Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials, eds. Reilly et al., U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington D.C., pp. 11-18, (1991)). Recent threat of “dirty bombs” (devices which spread radioactive material using conventional, non-nuclear explosives) has also created an interest in monitoring of radioactive materials such as ¹³⁷Cs, ⁶⁰Cu, ²⁴¹Am, radioactive medical waste and irradiated fuel from nuclear reactors that emit high energy gamma-rays (McDonald et al., Physics Today pg. 36 (2004)).

Thus, gamma-ray spectrometers and radiation detectors are important tools in monitoring of special nuclear materials. A number of homeland security systems such as hand-held radioisotope identifiers, vehicle portals for radiation detection and personal radiation detection devices rely on availability of high performance gamma-ray spectrometers. Similar systems are also required for nuclear non-proliferation monitoring. An important challenge in homeland security monitoring is not only to detect hidden radioactive materials but also to distinguish them from routinely used radiopharmaceuticals as well as from naturally occurring benign radioactive materials (McDonald et al., Physics Today pg. 36 (2004)).

Existing scintillator materials and commercial radiation detectors do not meet the current needs for radiation monitoring and weapons detection. For example, existing scintillators and detector typically lack the one or more important scintillation properties (e.g., high energy resolution, light output, stopping power, fast response, and the like) that is desired and/or are not useful in detecting both energetic photons (e.g., gamma-rays and X-rays) as well as neutron emission. Thus, a need exists for improved scintillator compositions suitable for use in various radiation detection applications, including, for example, radiation and nuclear weapons monitoring.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides a gadolinium halide scintillator, properties of which are disclosed herein. In the scintillator material of the invention, Gd³⁺ is both an efficient detector of X-rays and neutrons. Scintillator compositions of the present invention include surprisingly robust light output, high stopping efficiency (attenuation), and fast response. In one embodiment, the scintillator compositions include a combination of hight light output and fast timing (e.g., fast decay time, timing resolution, etc.) that is virtually unmatched among commercially available scintillator compositions. Furthermore, the scintillator compositions can be efficiently and economically produced, and are useful in a wide variety of applications.

Gadolinium halide scintillator compositions of the invention typically comprise gadolinium iodide (GdI₃) or gadolinium bromide (GdBr₃), but may include other halides. Iodine, being the highest atomic number (Z) halide that is stable, is the most efficient choice for X-ray detection. Crystals of GdI₃ doped with cerium have been grown using the Bridgman process and their scintillation properties have been characterized. The gamma-ray stopping efficiency of GdI₃ (Z_(average) approximately 56) is comparable or significantly higher than the most common scintillation detection compositions, (e.g., NaI:Tl (significantly, Z_(average)=32), CsI:Tl (slightly, Z_(average)=54), BaF₂ (better, Z_(average) approximately 25)). Excellent scintillation properties, including high light output, good proportionality, fast response, and good energy resolution have been measured for the GdI₃:Ce compositions. Based on results disclosed herein, gadolinium halide compositions were demonstrated to be very promising for gamma-ray spectroscopy, as well as X-ray and neutron emission detection.

As set forth above, characteristics of the scintillator compositions of the invention include surprising robust output, high stopping efficiency (attenuation) of both energetic photons and of neutrons, and fast response. In one embodiment, scintillation properties of GdI₃ crystals (e.g., <0.3 cm³) include a peak emission wavelength for GdI₃:5% Ce at 520 nm which is well matched to PMTs as well as silicon diodes used in nuclear instrumentation and a peak wavelength for gamma-ray spectroscopy. Scintillator compositions of the present invention include fast timing scintillators, with a rapid rise time and a fast decay-time constant. Rise time of the scintillator compositions will typically be less than about 1.0 nanosecond (ns) and more typically about 0.5 ns or less. Decay time constant will typically be less than about 100 ns, or less than about 50 ns, and more typically less than about 40 ns. The principal decay-time constant in one instance was measured at 33 ns, which is faster than the decay-time constant of commercial scintillators such as BGO, LSO, NaI:Tl and GSO (see, e.g., Table 1 infra). Scintillator compositions will typically include a light output greater than about 20,000 photons/MeV, and more typically greater than about 30,000 photons/MeV. The light output of GdI₃ in one embodiment was measured at about 35,000 photons/MeV, which is comparable to and/or greater than that of many commercial scintillators.

The measured initial photon intensity, which is a figure of merit for timing applications, is also high compared to other available commercial scintillator compositions. Initial photon intensity will typically be greater than about 500 photons/(ns×MeV) or greater than about 1000 photons/(ns×MeV) (e.g., 1060 photons/MeV/s). The combination of high light output and fast response compared to existing scintillators promises high energy and timing resolution with gadolinium halide scintillators. These properties are very attractive for radiation monitoring and detection, in general, and in imaging applications, such as positron emission tomography (PET) in particular. Due to its high atomic number constituents and high density of about 5.2 g/cm³, GdI₃ provides high gamma-ray sensitivity. The mean penetration depth of 511 keV photons in GdI₃ is about 1.8 cm, which comparables favorably to other commercially available scintillators. Attenuation length will typically be less than about 2.0 cm (511 keV). Thus, competitive gamma-ray detection properties are combined in GdI₃ with high neutron sensitivity.

Since GdI₃ melts congruently, it can be grown using crystal growth techniques such as Bridgman and Czochralski, which are generally easy to scale-up. Furthermore, the melting point of GdI₃ is 925° C., which is substantially lower than the melting point of LSO and GSO (>2000° C.). As a result, the eventual cost of GdI₃ can be expected to be considerably lower than that of other commercial scintillators such as LSO and GSO. This issue is particularly relevant in modern instrumentation (e.g., PET instrumentation) where the high cost of the detector components can be a major limitation to commercial application.

In certain embodiments of the present invention, the gadolinium halide can be doped. In particular, the gadolinium halide can be doped with cerium, e.g., Ce³⁺, and the like. Additional dopants can include, but are not limited to Lu, La, Eu, Pr, Sm, Sr, Tl, Cl, F, and I. In some cases, a dopant can include a mixture of dopants (e.g., two or more dopants). The dopant is typically present at about 0.1% or more and less than or equal to about 100% by molar weight, and in some cases from about 0.1% to about 5.0% by molar weight, or from about 5.0% to about 20% by molar weight.

In one aspect of the present invention, a radiation detection device is provided that comprises a detector assembly comprising a scintillator comprising a gadolinium halide and a dopant; and a light photon detection assembly. The halide of the scintillator composition can include, for example, iodide or bromide. The dopant can include a single dopant or a mixture of dopants (e.g., at least two dopants) and can include, for example, Ce, Lu, La, Eu, Pr, Sm, Sr, Tl, Cl, F, or I. The scintillator composition can include a crystal composition or compositions such as ceramics, glasses, deposits, vapor deposited films, and the like. The light photon detection assembly can comprise, for example, a photomultiplier tube, a photo diode, or a PIN detector. The device may further include a data analysis system for processing and analyzing detected signals. A data analysis system can be easily adapted from electronic/analysis systems known in the art for signal detection using scintillators.

In another aspect, the invention includes an X-ray and neutron detector assembly, comprising a scintillator composition comprising a gadolinium halide and a dopant, a light photon detection assembly, and a data analysis system. The light photon assembly can comprise a photomultiplier tube, a photo diode, or a PIN detector. The scintillator composition (e.g., crystal) can be coated, for example, with a reflective layer, a moisture resistant layer, or a vapor barrier, and the like. The reflective layer is typically to cover the surfaces of the scintillator composition not exposed to the photon detector assembly.

In yet another aspect, the invention includes a method of performing radiation detection. The method includes, for example, providing a detection device comprising a detector assembly comprising a scintillator comprising a gadolinium halide and a dopant, and a photon detection assembly; and positioning a target within a field of view of the scintillator as to detect emissions from the target. Emissions can include, for example, gamma-ray, X-ray, or neutron emissions. A target can include any potential source of detectable emissions including neutron emitters (e.g., plutonium and the like), gamma-ray sources (e.g., uranium and the like), X-ray sources, etc. Targets for detection are not limited to weapon sources (e.g., nuclear weapons materials), but include any source of detectable signal. In one embodiment, for example, the scintillator compositions can be used for imaging applications including medical imaging such as in a method of performing PET (e.g., time-of-flight PET). In such an embodiment, the imaging method can comprise injecting or otherwise administering a patient with a detectable label, and after a sufficient period of time to allow localization or distribution of the label, placing the patient within the field of view of the detection device. Thus, in some embodiments the target includes a patient or a portion of a patient's body. In some applications an X-ray or neutron source is positioned within the field of view of the detector and an absorber is placed between them, so that the data obtained comprises the absorption characteristics of the object (X-ray and neutron radiography, respectively).

For a fuller understanding of the nature and advantages of the present invention, reference should be had to the ensuing detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. The drawings represent embodiments of the present invention by way of illustration. The invention is capable of modification in various respects without departing from the invention. Accordingly, the drawings/figures and description of these embodiments are illustrative in nature, and not restrictive.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a ¹³⁷Cs spectra collected with GdI₃: 5% Ce coupled to a PMT. The light output of GdI₃: 5% Ce is approximately 35,000 photons/MeV. The energy resolution of 662 keV peak for GdI₃: 5% Ce is 10.7% (FWHM).

FIG. 2 depicts various spectra (137Cs, ²⁴¹Am, ²⁵²Cf/Pb) including neutron detection, collected with a GdI₃: 5% Ce crystal coupled to a PMT and a ¹³⁷Cs spectra collected with a BGO crystal coupled to a PMT.

FIG. 3 depicts various spectra (²⁴¹Am, ²⁵²Cf/Pb, ²⁵²Cf/Pb/B), including neutron detection, collected with a GdI₃: 5% Ce crystal coupled to a PMT.

FIG. 4 depicts the optical emission spectrum for a GdI₃: 5% Ce scintillator upon exposure to X-rays. For comparison purposes, the optical emission spectrum for LuI₃: 5% Ce upon exposure to X-rays is shown for comparison.

FIG. 5 depicts the decay-time spectrum for a GdI₃: 5% Ce scintillator.

FIG. 6 demonstrates the proportionality of response for a GdI₃: 5% Ce scintillator composition. Over 100 keV to >1 MeV gamma-ray energy range, the non-proportionality for GdI₃: 5% Ce is about 3%. The figure shows the energy range from 60 keV to 1247 keV, the proportionality in this range was determined to be 7%.

FIG. 7 is a conceptual diagram of a detector assembly of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

This invention will be better understood with resort to the following definitions:

A. Rise time, in reference to a scintillation crystal material, shall mean the speed with which its light output grows once a gamma-ray has been stopped in the crystal. The contribution of this characteristic of a scintillator combined with the decay time contribute to a timing resolution. A timing resolution of less than 500 picoseconds (ps) is of particular interest for use in methods comprising time-of-flight detection of an annihilation event as originating within about a 30 cm distance.

B. A Fast timing scintillator (or fast scintillator) typically requires a timing resolution of about 500 ps or less. For certain PET applications (e.g., time-of-flight (TOF)) the fast scintillator should be capable of localizing an annihilation event as originating from within about a 30 cm distance, i.e., from within a human being scanned.

C. Timing accuracy or resolution, usually defined by the full width half maximum (FWHM) of the time of arrival differences from a point source of annihilation gamma-rays. Because of a number of factors, there is a spread of measured values of times of arrival, even when they are all equal. Usually they distribute along a bell-shaped or Gaussian curve. The FWHM is the width of the curve at a height that is half of the value of the curve at its peak.

D. Light Output shall mean the number of light photons produced per unit energy deposited by the detected gamma-ray, typically the number of light photons/MeV.

E. Stopping power or attenuation shall mean the range of the incoming X-ray or gamma-ray in the scintillation crystal material. The attenuation length, in this case, is the length of crystal material needed to reduce the incoming beam flux to 1/e⁻.

F. Proportionality of response (or linearity). For some applications (such as CT scanning) it is desirable that the light output be substantially proportional to the deposited energy.

G. Coincidence timing window/coincidence detection shall mean the length of time allowed for deciding whether two distinct gamma-rays have been detected. In PET, this window is desired to be as short as possible, but no shorter than the time it takes the gamma-rays to travel through the body (>1 nsec).

H. Single line time-of-flight (TOF) localization shall mean the process by which, through timing of the signals, the position of the annihilation event is localized to a portion of the line joining the detectors, this portion being smaller than the length of the line.

I. Position sensitive detector or array shall mean a detector where the position of the energy signal (e.g., gamma-ray, X-ray, neutron, and the like) interaction within the detector is determined. In some embodiments this is done through the Anger principle of light division (well known in the state of the art). For instance, there can be a photodetector at each end of the scintillator composition and the proportion of light reaching each detector determines position, or an array of photodetectors where the center of mass of the light distribution determines position (i.e., the closest detectors get more light).

J. Method to correct for different timing offsets of an individual detector shall be understood to include, among others, software code that stores each detector's individual timing delay and code to subtract from each timing signal this pre-stored value. Method to introduce through delay lines (cables through which the signal travels) a fixed delay for each detector, so that their signals all have the same arrival delay at the timing electronics.

The present invention provides a gadolinium halide scintillator, properties of which are disclosed herein. In the scintillator material of the invention, Gd³⁺ is an intrinsic constituent as well as a luminescence center for the scintillation process. Gadolinium halide scintillator compositions of the invention typically comprise gadolinium iodide (GdI₃) or gadolinium bromide (GdBr₃), but may include other halides.

The scintillators of the invention are particularly useful, for example, for spectroscopy detection of energetic photons (X-rays and gamma-rays), as well as for neutron emission detection. Notable characteristics for the scintillation compositions of the invention include surprisingly robust light output, high gamma-ray and neutron stopping efficiency (attenuation), fast response, good proportionality, and minimal afterglow. Furthermore, the scintillator compositions can be efficiently and economically produced. Thus, detectors comprising a gadolinium halide scintillator composition of the invention are useful in a wide variety of applications, including without limitation nuclear and high energy physics research, medical imaging, diffraction, non-destructive testing, nuclear treaty verification and safeguards, and geological exploration.

The scintillator composition of the present invention typically includes a “dopant”. These dopants can effect certain properties, such as physical properties (e.g., brittleness, etc.) as well as scintillation properties (e.g., luminescence, etc.), of the scintillator composition. The dopant can include, for example, cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), and the like, or mixtures of cerium and praseodymium, and the like. Cerium is a particularly good dopant for use in scintillator compositions of the invention because, for example, it imparts high luminescence efficiency, good timing resolution, and short decay time, as well as suitable physical properties (e.g., limited brittleness, etc.) to the scintillator composition of the present invention. The dopant is usually employed in its trivalent form, for example Ce³⁺ or Pr³⁺, and is supplied in various forms, e.g., halides, such as cerium chloride or cerium bromide. Other dopants in the scintillator compositions of the invention include, for example, lutetium (Lu), lanthanum (La), europium (Eu), samarium (Sm), strontium (Sr), thallium (Tl), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), iodine (I), and mixtures of any of the dopants.

The amount of dopant present will depend on various factors, such the application for which the scintillator composition is being used; the desired scintillation properties (e.g., emission properties, timing resolution, etc.); and the type of detection device into which the scintillator is being incorporated. For example, the dopant is typically employed at a level in the range of about 0.1% to about 20%, by molar weight. In many embodiments, the amount of dopant is in the range of about 0.1% to about 100%, or about 0.1% to about 5.0%, or about 5.0% to about 20%, by molar weight.

The scintillator composition of the invention may be prepared in several different forms. In some embodiments, the composition is in a crystalline form (e.g., monocrystalline). Scintillation crystals, such as monocrystalline scintillators, have a greater tendency for transparency than other forms. Scintillation in crystalline form (e.g., scintillation crystals) are often useful for high-energy radiation detectors, e.g., those used for gamma-ray or X-ray detection.

However, the composition can be in another form as well and the selected form may depend, in part, on the intended end use of the scintillator. For example, a scintillator can be in a powder form. It can also be prepared in the form of a ceramic or polycrystalline ceramic. Other forms of scintillation compositions will be recognized and can include, for example, glasses, deposits, vapor deposited films, and the like. It should also be understood that a scintillator composition might contain small amounts of impurities. Also, minor amounts of other materials may be purposefully included in the scintillator compositions to effect the properties of the scintillator compositions.

Methods for making crystal materials, generally, are also well-known in the art. (see, e.g., “Luminescent Materials”, by G. Blasse et al, Springer-Verlag (1994)). Typically, the appropriate reactants are melted at a temperature sufficient to form a congruent, molten composition. The melting temperature will depend on the identity of the reactants themselves (see, e.g., melting points of reactants), but is usually in the range of about 300° C. to about 1350° C. The melting point for TIF is 326° C. and for LaF₃ the melting point is 1493. GdI₃ melts at 925° C.

A variety of techniques can be employed for forming crystals from the molten composition. (see, e.g., “Crystal Growth Processes”, by J. C. Brice, Blackie & Son Ltd (1986)). Non-limiting examples of the crystal-growing techniques are the Bridgman-Stockbarger method; the Czochralski method, the zone-melting method (or “floating zone” method), the vertical gradient freeze (VGF) method, and the temperature gradient method. Those skilled in the art will be familiar with the necessary details regarding each of these processes (see also, Example 1 below).

In the practice of the present invention, attention is paid to the physical properties of the scintillator material. In particular applications, properties such as hygroscopy (tendency to absorb water), brittleness (tendency to crack), and crumbliness should be minimal.

TABLE I Properties of Scintillators Light Wave- Attenuation Initial Photon Principal Output length of Length Intensity Decay (Photons/ Emission (511 keV) (Photons/(ns Time Material MeV) (nm) (cm) MeV)) (ns) NaI(Tl) 38,000 415 3.3 165 230 CsI(Tl) 52,000 540 1.9 50 1000 LSO  24000 420 1.2 600 40 BGO  8,200 505 1.1 30 300 BaF₂ 10,000~ 310 slow 2.3 3,400 620  2,000 fast 220 fast (total) slow 0.6 fast GSO  7,600 430 1.5 125 60 CdWO₄ 15,000 480 1.1 3 5000 YAP 20,000 370 2.1 570 26 LaBr₃ 61,000 360 2.1 1,850 31 (0.5% Ce)¹ GdI₃ 35,000 520 1.8 1060 33 ¹Data based on the Delft University of Technology results (See, van Loef et al., Nucl. Inst. Meth. Phys. Res. A 486:254-258 (2002)).

Table I provides a listing of certain properties of a number of scintillators. Compared to other commercially available scintillators, including CsI, which is among the scintillation materials with the highest known light output, GdI₃ produces comparable light output (approximately 35,000 photon/MeV). While the scintillator compositions of the present invention produce greater or comparable light output compared to previously available scintillators such as NaI(Tl), the present scintillator compositions offer faster timing (e.g., decay constant) and initial photon intensity than many available scintillators. For example, GdI₃ has a fast principal decay constant (about 33 ns), a very fast light output (initial photons), and the energy resolution of GdI₃ coupled to a PMT and measured at 662 keV was determined to be about 10.7% (FWHM). Additionally, the scintillator compositions of the present invention are sensitive to neutrons and, therefore, are suitable for use in neutron detection applications.

As set forth above, scintillator compositions of the present invention may find use in a wide variety of applications. In one embodiment, for example, the invention is directed to a method for detecting energy radiation (e.g., gamma-rays, X-rays, neutron emissions, and the like) with a scintillation detector including the scintillation composition of the invention.

FIG. 7 is a diagram of a detector assembly of the present invention. The detector 10 includes a scintillator 12 optically coupled to a light photodetector 14 or imaging device. The detector assembly 10 can include a data analysis system 16 to process information from the scintillator 12 and light photodetector 14. In use, the detector 10 detects energetic radiation emitted form a source 18.

A detector or data analysis system thereof can include, for example, a module or system to process information (e.g., radiation detection information) from the detector/photodetectors can also be included in an invention assembly and can include, for example, a wide variety of proprietary or commercially available computers or systems having one or more processing structures, a personal computer, mainframe, or the like, with such systems often comprising data processing hardware and/or software configured to implement any one (or combination of) the method steps described herein. Any software will typically comprise machine readable code of programming instructions embodied in a tangible media such as a memory, a digital or optical recording media, optical, electrical, or wireless telemetry signals, or the like, and one or more of these structures may also be used to transmit data and information between components of the system in any of a wide variety of distributed or centralized signal processing architectures.

The detector assembly typically includes material formed from the scintillator composition described herein (e.g., one or more scintillator crystals). The detector further can include, for example, a photon detection assembly including one or more photodetectors. Non-limiting examples of photodetectors include photomultiplier tubes (PMT), photodiodes, CCD sensors, image intensifiers, and the like. Choice of a particular photodetector will depend in part on the type of radiation detector being fabricated, and on its intended use of the device.

A data analysis system, or module to process information from a light photodetector can also be included in an invention assembly and can include, for example, a wide variety of proprietary or commercially available computers or systems having one or more processing structures, a personal computer, mainframe, or the like, with such systems often comprising data processing hardware and/or software configured to implement any one (or combination of) the method steps described herein. Any software will typically comprise machine readable code of programming instructions embodied in a tangible media such as a memory, a digital or optical recording media, optical, electrical, or wireless telemetry signals, or the like, and one or more of these structures may be used to transmit data and information between components of the system in any of a wide variety of distributed or centralized signal processing architectures.

The detector assemblies themselves, which can include the scintillator and the photodetector assembly, can be connected to a variety of tools and devices, as mentioned previously. Non-limiting examples include nuclear weapons monitoring and detection devices, well-logging tools, and imaging devices, such as nuclear medicine devices (e.g., PET). Technologies for operably coupling or integrating a radiation detector assembly containing a scintillator to a detection device are well-known in the art, and need not be described in detail here. For non-limiting examples of techniques for operably coupling detectors containing a scintillator to a detection device see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,989,541 (titled “Coincident neutron detector for providing energy and directional information”) and WO2004/109331 (titled “Neutron and Gamma Ray Monitor”).

The detectors may also be connected to a visualization interface, imaging equipment, or digital imaging equipment (e.g., pixilated flat panel devices). In some embodiments, the scintillator may serve as a component of a screen scintillator. For example, powdered scintillator material could be formed into a relatively flat plate, which is attached to a film, such as photographic film. Energetic radiation, e.g., X-rays, neutron, originating from a source, would interact with the scintillator and be converted into light photons, which are visualized in the developed film. The film can be replaced by amorphous silicon position-sensitive photodetectors or other position-sensitive detectors, such as avalanche diodes and the like.

Imaging devices, including medical imaging equipment, such as the PET devices as mentioned above, and the like, represent another important application for invention scintillator compositions and radiation detectors. In PET applications, a radiopharmaceutical or detectable label is administered to a patient and may become concentrated within a specific tissue or organ. Radionuclides from the compound decay and emit positrons. When the positrons encounter electrons, they are annihilated and converted into photons, or gamma-rays. The PET scanner can locate these “annihilations” and thereby reconstruct an image of the tissue/organ for observation. The detector modules in the scanner usually include a number of “cameras” or “detectors”, along with the associated circuitry, for detecting annihilation events and reconstructing an image of the patient's tissue or organ. The technology for operably connecting the radiation detector (containing a scintillator) to a PET device is also well known in the art, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,559,597; U.S. Pat. No. 6,255,655; U.S. Pat. No. 6,624,422.

For example, where the scintillators are fast scintillators, the compositions of the invention may be particularly useful in certain medical imaging applications, such as PET applications, including time-of-flight (TOF) PET. However, these detectors are not limited to PET cameras. They are also useful, for example, in other applications where fast decay of the light signal is desirable. One such application is X-ray computed tomography (CT), where, as rotation times and individual detector size decreases, detector response time become more important. The high linearity of output of the scintillators of the present invention is of particular use in this type of application.

As will be understood by one of skill in the art, where the invention scintillator compositions are fast scintillators, they may be used, for example, in conjunction with methods to calibrate each detector to correct for differential time lags that confuse relative timing measurements. In particular embodiments, such corrections are performed by introducing hardwired delays of appropriate lengths or by software processing based on pre-stored delay times for each detector. Within the practice of the present invention scintillators are used in individual detectors (detector modules) or read by position-sensitive photodetectors or arrays of photodetectors that detect the light from the scintillation of the crystal or ceramic. For further discussion of fast scintillators and use of scintillator compositions in medical imaging applications, including PET (e.g., TOF), see, for example, commonly owned U.S. application Ser. No. 10/948,913, filed Sep. 23, 2004, (U.S. Patent Publication No. US2005-0104001), which is incorporated herein by reference.

Geological exploration devices, such as well-logging devices, were mentioned previously and represent an important application for these radiation detectors. The assembly containing the scintillator usually includes, for example, an optical window at one end of the enclosure-casing. The window permits radiation-induced scintillation light to pass out of the scintillator assembly for measurement by the photon detection assembly or light-sensing device (e.g., photomultiplier tube, etc.), which is coupled to the scintillator assembly. The light-sensing device converts the light photons emitted from the scintillator into electrical pulses that may be shaped and digitized, for example, by the associated electronics. By this general process, gamma-rays can be detected, which in turn provides an analysis of geological formations, such as rock strata surrounding the drilling bore holes. The technology for operably connecting a radiation detector to a well-logging tube is well-known in the art. The general concepts are described in many references including, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,869,836 (Linden et al). See also, e.g., commonly owned U.S. application Ser. No. 11/233,715, which is herein incorporated by reference.

In many of the applications of a scintillator composition as set forth above (e.g., nuclear weapons monitoring and detection, imaging, and well-logging and PET technologies), certain characteristics of the scintillator are desirable, including high light output, fast rise time and short decay time, good timing resolution, and suitable physical properties. Certain scintillator performance characteristics are particularly important in selecting a scintillator for use in particular radiation detection devices and applications. For example, PET scanners typically require a fast scintillator that has good light output characteristics. Similarly, for CT scanners, a scintillator having good light output and good timing resolution is generally desired. For well-logging applications, for example, scintillators that can withstand higher temperatures, or have higher melting temperatures, are generally desired.

The present invention is expected to provide scintillator materials which can provide the desired high light output and initial photon intensity characteristics for demanding applications of the technologies. Moreover, the invention scintillator compositions are also expected to simultaneously exhibit the other important properties noted above, e.g., fast rise time, short decay time, good stopping power, and timing resolution. Furthermore, the scintillator materials are also expected to be produced efficiently and economically, and also expected to be employed in a variety of other devices which require radiation/signal detection (e.g., gamma-ray, X-ray, neutron emissions, and the like).

The following examples are intended to illustrate but not limit the invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1

The present example provides a method for growing and provides characterization for GdI₃ scintillator crystals. The following examples are offered by way of illustration, not by way of limitation.

Crystal Growth of GdI₃

GdI₃ has hexagonal crystal structure and its density is approximately 5.2 g/cm³. The compound melts congruently at about 925° C. and therefore its crystals can be grown using melt based methods such as those described by Bridgman and Czochralski. This is fortunate because these melt-based processes are well suited for growth of large volume crystals (Brice, Crystal Growth Processes, Blackie Halsted Press (1986)). The Bridgman method has been used for growing GdI₃ crystals because this technique is easy to implement, and can provide a good indication of the feasibility of producing high quality crystals of GdI₃ from the melt. Both the vertical and horizontal orientations of the Bridgman method can be used in producing crystals of the present invention. The vertical Bridgman method is more commonly used in scintillator crystal production, although the horizontal approach differs in several aspects including, for example, production of sharper definition of critical liquid/solid interface; less stress on the crystal during solidification and cooling; and simple implementation of a zone leveling process to achieve uniform dopant concentration across the length of the ingot. The vertical Bridgman method was primarily used in producing crystals examined and discussed below. Further crystal production and refinement, however, will be performed.

Prior to actual Bridgman growth, GdI₃ doped with an appropriate amount of Ce³⁺ was prepared. A concentration of 5% Ce³⁺ was evaluated, although a wide range of additional concentrations can also be utilized (e.g., 0.1%, 1-5%, 5-20%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and up to or less than 100%). Ultra-dry, high purity (e.g., 99.99% purity) GdI₃ was used and Ce³⁺ was incorporated in a range of about 5.0% (on a molar weight basis) by adding CeI₃ to the mixture. These constituents were mixed and then placed in an ampoule (e.g., quartz, tantalum, or glassy carbon crucibles). The ampoule was evacuated, sealed and then heated in a single zone furnace to a temperature above the melting point of GdI₃ and CeI₃ (e.g., above about 925° C. and below about 1100° C.), thus allowing the constituents to mix and react in the melt phase to form GdI₃:Ce. Upon cooling, the solid phase of GdI₃:Ce was available for use as feed material for the Bridgman growth process. In one embodiment, the crystals were synthesized and grown in a single zone furnace at about 943° C. and 962° C. Both tested control temperatures were above the melting points of GdI₃ and CeI₃. Growth rate of in the range of about 1 to about 6 mm/hr (e.g., 1.25 and 5.83 mm/hr) were used to produce crystals described herein.

A two zone Bridgman furnace can also be used for GdI₃:Ce crystal growth. In use, the higher temperature zone (T₁) of the furnace is kept above the melting point of the compound, and the lower temperature zone (T₂) is maintained below the melting point. Thus, feed material in the furnace first melts while in the zone defined by T₁ and then crystallizes out in the zone defined by T₂. The speed at which the solid-liquid interface is moved, as determined by the temperature gradient in the furnace, and the shape of the interface are parameters influential in growing high quality crystals. In a particular embodiment using a two zone furnace, the temperature T₁ can be set at between about 926 and 975° C., while the temperature T₂ is set at between about 875 and 926° C. This value of T₂ keeps the bottom zone temperature below the melting point of one of the major constituents, (GdI₃=925° C.). Growth rate (e.g., the rate of motion of zone T₁) effects how close the conditions at the solid-liquid interface come to equilibrium and, at very slow rates, the system operates close to equilibrium. Typical growth rates for the Bridgman process are about 1-10 mm/hr. Growth rates ranging from about 1 mm/day to about 1 cm/hr may be utilized. Rates of about 1.25 to about 5.83 mm/hr can typically be used. The range of rates may be extended to improve material quality. Additionally, in some instances zone leveling of the ingot may be performed in order to maintain a uniform Ce³⁺ doping level over its entire length.

Physical Properties of GdI₃ Ce Crystals

X-ray diffraction analysis of the GdI₃:Ce crystals can be conducted, for example, using a Rigaku X-Ray diffractometer (ROTAFLEX RTP-500 with copper K-alpha radiation). In view of the hygroscopic nature of the GdI₃ crystals, the sample can be placed in a helium chamber and then positioned on the table of the diffraction apparatus. The X-ray diffraction pattern for the grown GdI₃:Ce crystal can confirm that the sample is a single crystal with a hexagonal structure. Optical spectroscopy of the GdI₃:Ce crystals may also be performed.

Scintillation Properties of GdI₃

Scintillation properties of small Bridgman grown GdI₃ crystals 0.3 cm³) have been characterized. This investigation involved measurement of the light output, the emission spectrum, and the fluorescent decay time of the crystals. Energy and timing resolution of GdI₃ crystals and their proportionality of response were also measured.

1. Light Output and Energy Resolution

The light output of GdI₃ crystals was measured by comparing their response to 662 keV γ-rays (¹³⁷Cs source) to the response of a calibrated BGO scintillator to the same isotope (see FIGS. 1 and 2). This measurement involved optical coupling of a GdI₃ crystal to a photomultiplier tube (with multi-alkali S-20 photocathode), irradiating the scintillator with 662 keV photons and recording the resulting pulse height spectrum. In order to maximize light collection, the GdI₃ crystal was wrapped in reflective, white Teflon tape on all faces (except the one coupled to PMT). An index matching silicone fluid was also used at the PMT-scintillator interface. A pulse height spectrum was recorded with a GdI₃ crystal. This experiment was then repeated with a calibrated BGO scintillator. Comparison of the photopeak position obtained with GdI₃ for 662 keV photon energy to that with BGO provided estimation of light output for the GdI₃ crystal. FIG. 1 shows the pulse height spectra for both GdI₃ under ¹³⁷Cs irradiation and amplifier shaping time of 4.0 μsec. FIG. 2 shows the pulse height spectra for BGO under ¹³⁷Cs irradiation and amplifier shaping time of 4.0 μsec. This shaping time is long enough to allow full light collection from both the scintillators. The PMT bias and amplifier gain were same for both spectra. Based on the recorded photopeak positions for GdI₃ and BGO, and by taking into account the photocathode quantum efficiency for BGO and GdI₃, light output of GdI₃ crystal was initially estimated to be about 30,000 photons/MeV, and later estimated to be up to 35,000 photons/MeV. The energy resolution of the 662 keV photopeak recorded with GdI₃ scintillator has been measured to be 10.7% (FWHM) at room temperature as shown in FIG. 1.

The light output and energy resolution of GdI₃ crystals was further measured in response to energy sources in addition to the 662 keV γ-rays (¹³⁷Cs source), including, for example, 60 keV γ-rays (²⁴¹Am), and neutron emissions (²⁵²Cf/Pb and ²⁵²Cf/Pb/B) (see FIGS. 2 and 3). Measurements were performed substantially as described above. These results further demonstrate that the scintillator compositions of the present invention are suitable for use in neutron detection, in addition to detection of gamma-ray and X-ray emissions.

2. Emission Spectrum

The emission spectrum of the GdI₃ scintillators has been measured. The GdI₃ samples were excited with radiation from a Philips X-ray tube having a Cu target, with power settings of 30 kVp and 15 mA. The scintillation light was passed through a McPherson monochromator and detected by a Burle C31034 photomultiplier tube A normalized emission spectrum for a GdI₃ sample is shown in FIG. 4. The peak emission wavelength for the GdI₃ sample was at approximately 520 nm, and this emission was anticipated to be due to 5d→4f transition of Ce³⁺. The peak emission wavelength of 520 nm for GdI₃ is attractive for gamma-ray spectroscopy because it matches well with the spectral response of the photomultiplier tubes as well as a new generation of silicon photodiodes.

3. Decay Time

Decay-time spectrum of a GdI₃ crystal has been measured using the delayed coincidence method (Bollinger and Thomas, Rev. Sci. Instr. 32:1044 (1961)). FIG. 5 shows the decay-time spectrum recorded for a GdI₃ sample along with a theoretical fit (with an exponential rise and decay time plus background) to the data. The decay time for the sample was about 33 ns and this component covered all of the integrated light output of the sample. This decay component can be attributed to optical emission arising from direct capture of electron-hole pairs at the Ce³⁺ sites. The rise time of the scintillation pulse from GdI₃ has been estimated to be ˜0.5 ns. The initial photon intensity, a figure of merit for timing applications, has been estimated to be approximately 1,060 photons/(ns×MeV) for GdI₃.

4. Proportionality of Response

The proportionality of response of GdI₃ scintillators was evaluated. Non-proportionality (as a function of energy) in light yield can be one of the important reasons for degradation in energy resolution of established scintillators such as NaI(Tl) and CsI(Tl) (Dorenbos et al., IEEE Trans. Nuc. Sci. 42:2190 (1995)). As a result, light output of GdI₃ was measured under excitation from isotopes such as ²⁴¹AM (60 keV γ-rays), ⁵⁷Co (122 keV γ-rays), ²²Na (511 keV and 1275 keV γ-rays) and ¹³⁷Cs (662 keV γ-rays). A GdI₃ crystal was wrapped in Teflon tape and coupled to a PMT. Pulse height measurements were performed using standard NIM equipment with the scintillator exposed to different isotopes. The same settings were used for PMT and pulse processing electronics for each isotope. From the measured peak position and the known γ-ray energy for each isotope, the light output (in photons/MeV) at each γ-ray energy was estimated. The data points were then normalized with respect to the light output value at 662 keV energy and the results (shown in FIG. 6) indicated that GdI₃ was a very proportional scintillator. Over the energy range from about 60 to about 1275 keV, the non-proportionality in light yield was about 7% for the energy range from about 60 to 1275 keV, and 3% for the energy range from about 122 to 1275 keV for GdI₃ (for corresponding values for other established scintillators see, e.g., Guillot-Noel et al., IEEE Trans. Nuc. Sci 46: 1274-1284 (1999)).

Overall, these measurements clearly indicated that GdI₃ has high light output, fast response and shows very high energy and timing resolution. It also showed good proportionality of response over the γ-ray energy range from 60 to 1275 keV.

Although the invention has been described with reference to the above examples, it will be understood that modifications and variations are encompassed within the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is limited only by the following claims along with their full scope of equivalents. All publications and patent documents cited in this application are incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent document were so individually denoted. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A scintillator comprising a gadolinium halide and a dopant, the gadolinium halide forming a lattice structure in the scintillator having the formula: Gd(halide)₃.
 2. The scintillator of claim 1, wherein the scintillator is a fast scintillator.
 3. The scintillator of claim 2, wherein the scintillator comprises a decay-time constant of less than about 50 nanoseconds (ns).
 4. The scintillator of claim 2, wherein the scintillator comprises a decay-time constant of less than about 40 ns.
 5. The scintillator of claim 2, wherein the scintillator comprises an initial photon intensity of greater than about 1000 Photons/ns×MeV.
 6. The scintillator of claim 1, wherein the scintillator comprises a light output of greater than about 20,000 Photons/MeV.
 7. The scintillator of claim 1, wherein the scintillator comprises a light output of greater than about 30,000 Photons/MeV.
 8. The scintillator of claim 1, wherein the scintillator comprises sensitivity to both energetic photons and to neutrons.
 9. The scintillator of claim 1, wherein the halide is iodide or bromide.
 10. The scintillator of claim 7, wherein the dopant comprises Ce, Lu, La, Eu, Pr, Sm Sr, Tl, Cl, F, or I.
 11. The scintillator of claim 10, wherein the dopant comprises a mixture of at least two dopants.
 12. The scintillator of claim 9, wherein said dopant is present at about 0.1% or more and less than or equal to about 100% by molar weight.
 13. The scintillator of claim 9, wherein said dopant is present in an amount of from about 0.1% to about 5.0% by molar weight.
 14. The scintillator of claim 9, wherein said dopant is present in an amount of from about 5.0% to about 20% by molar weight.
 15. The scintillator of claim 1, wherein said dopant is Ce and present in an amount of about 5.0% by molar weight.
 16. The scintillator of claim 15, wherein the scintillator comprises a crystal composition.
 17. A radiation detection device, comprising a detector assembly comprising a scintillator comprising a gadolinium halide and a dopant; and a light photon detection assembly, the gadolinium halide forming a lattice structure in the scintillator having the formula: Gd(halide)₃.
 18. The device of claim 17, wherein the halide is iodide or bromide.
 19. The device of claim 18, wherein the dopant comprises Ce, Lu, La, Eu, Pr, Sm, Sr, Tl, Cl, F, or I.
 20. The device of claim 17, wherein the device is a positron emission tomography (PET) imaging device.
 21. The device of claim 17, wherein the device is an X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging device.
 22. The device of claim 17, wherein the device is a well-logging device.
 23. The device of claim 17, wherein the device is a fissionable material detection device.
 24. The device of claim 17, wherein said dopant is Ce and present in an amount of about 5.0% by molar weight.
 25. The device of claim 24, wherein the scintillator comprises a crystal composition.
 26. The device of claim 17, further comprising a data analysis system.
 27. The device of claim 17, wherein the light photon detection assembly comprises a photomultiplier tube, a photo diode, a PIN detector, or an avalanche detector.
 28. An X-ray and neutron detector assembly, comprising: a scintillator composition comprising a gadolinium halide and a dopant, the gadolinium halide forming a lattice structure in the scintillator having the formula: Gd(halide)₃; a light photon detection assembly; and a data analysis system.
 29. The assembly of claim 28, wherein the halide is iodide or bromide.
 30. The assembly of claim 28, wherein the dopant comprises Ce, Lu, La, Eu, Pr, Sm, Sr, Tl, Cl, F, or I.
 31. The assembly of claim 29, wherein said dopant is present at about 0.1% or more and less than or equal to about 100% by molar weight.
 32. The assembly of claim 28, wherein said dopant is Ce and present in an amount of about 5.0% by molar weight.
 33. The assembly of claim 28, wherein the light photon detection assembly comprises a photomultiplier tube, a photo diode, a PIN detector, or an avalanche detector.
 34. The assembly of claim 28, wherein the light photon detection assembly comprises a position-sensitive photomultiplier tube, a photo diode, a PIN detector, or an avalanche detector.
 35. The assembly of claim 28, wherein the scintillator is coated with a reflective layer, a moisture resistant layer, or a vapor barrier.
 36. A method of performing radiation detection, comprising: providing a detection device comprising a detector assembly comprising a scintillator comprising a gadolinium halide and a dopant, and a light photon detection assembly, wherein the gadolinium halide forms a lattice structure in the scintillator having the formula: Gd(halide)₃; and positioning a target within a field of view of the scintillator as to detect emissions from the target.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the emissions comprise gamma-ray emissions.
 38. The method of claim 36, wherein the emissions comprise X-ray emissions.
 39. The method of claim 36, wherein the emissions comprise neutron emissions. 